Theory and research on sex differences in adjustment focus largely on parental, societal, and biological influences. However, it also is important to consider how peers contribute to girls' and boys' development. This article provides a critical review of sex differences in several peer relationship processes, including behavioral and social-cognitive styles, stress and coping, and relationship provisions. The authors present a speculative peer-socialization model based on this review in which the implications of these sex differences for girls' and boys' emotional and behavioral development are considered. Central to this model is the idea that sex-linked relationship processes have costs and benefits for girls' and boys' adjustment. Finally, the authors present recent research testing certain model components and propose approaches for testing understudied aspects of the model.
These results, showing possible differences in brain maturational processes between boys and girls, lead us to investigate these differences further using DTI. Previously, it was found that diffusion anisotropy increases with age in regionally specific white matter regions including the internal capsule and arcuate fasciculus, while mean diffusivity decreases with age throughout the white matter [Schmithorst et al., 2002]. A sexual dimorphism in this maturational process is hypothesized, the specifics of which are outlined below.
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This developmental framework is supported by previous structural and functional MRI studies. The left inferior frontal gyrus has been identified as a region in which boys persist in maintaining greater relative gray matter volume when compared with girls [Blanton et al., 2004], in contrast to the global trend in the brain [De Bellis et al., 2001] of boys' decreasing relative gray matter volume to a lower level than girls by age 12, continuing into early adulthood. An fMRI study [Schmithorst and Holland, 2007] has shown a positive correlation of intelligence in boys with functional connectivity involving the left inferior frontal gyrus (Broca's area) for narrative comprehension, with the opposite effect (negative correlation) present in girls. Consistent with a previously hypothesized greater dependence in boys for optimal neuronal pruning on intelligence [Haier, 1993], our results suggest that the optimal developmental strategy for boys may involve less neuronal pruning in the left frontal lobe relative to other regions together with increased connectivity with other brain regions, reflected in an increase in FA with age and a greater proportion of gray matter. On the other hand, girls' decreased reliance on functional connectivity with the left inferior frontal gyrus would reflect a decrease in FA; unnecessary or inefficient fiber tracts would no longer be maintained, as inefficient synaptic connections are removed through the gray matter pruning process [Casey et al., 2000; Courchesne et al., 2000; Huttenlocher and Dabholkar, 1997].
Greater MD was seen in the right frontal lobe in boys. This result is however confounded with delayed development in boys. The effect size was decreased when a correction was made for girls' earlier maturation (as described in the Results section). The frontal lobes are the last to develop [Casey et al., 2000; Huttenlocher and Dabholkar, 1997] and may develop later in males compared to females, with development continuing beyond the oldest age (18 years) available in the study.
The natural human sex ratio at birth was estimated, in a 2002 study, to be close to 106 boys to 100 girls.[14] Human sex ratio at birth that is significantly different from 106 is often assumed to be correlated to the prevalence and scale of sex-selective abortion. Countries considered to have significant practices of sex-selective abortion are those with birth sex ratios of 108 and above (selective abortion of females), and 102 and below (selective abortion of males).[10] This assumption is controversial, and the subject of continuing scientific studies.
James' hypothesis is supported by historical birth sex ratio data before technologies for ultrasonographic sex-screening were discovered and commercialized in the 1960s and 1970s, as well by reverse abnormal sex ratios currently observed in Africa. Michel Garenne reports that many African nations have, over decades, witnessed birth sex ratios below 100, that is more girls are born than boys.[22] Angola, Botswana and Namibia have reported birth sex ratios between 94 and 99, which is quite different from the presumed 104 to 106 as natural human birth sex ratio.[23]
There is controversy about the notion of the exact natural sex ratio at birth. In a study around 2002, the natural sex ratio at birth was estimated to be close to 1.06 males/female.[14] There is controversy whether sex ratios outside the 103-107 range are due to sex-selection, as suggested by some scholars, or due to natural causes. The claims that unbalanced sex ratios are necessary due to sex selection have been questioned by some researchers.[8] Some researchers argue that an unbalanced sex ratio should not be automatically held as evidence of prenatal sex-selection; Michel Garenne reports that many African nations have, over decades, witnessed birth sex ratios below 100, that is more girls are born than boys.[22] Angola, Botswana and Namibia have reported birth sex ratios between 94 and 99, which is quite different than the presumed "normal" sex ratio, meaning that significantly more girls have been born in such societies.[23]
The estimates for birth sex ratios, and thus derived sex-selective abortion, are a subject of dispute as well. For example, United States' CIA projects[41] the birth sex ratio for Switzerland to be 106, while the Switzerland's Federal Statistical Office that tracks actual live births of boys and girls every year, reports the latest birth sex ratio for Switzerland as 107.[42] Other variations are more significant; for example, CIA projects[41] the birth sex ratio for Pakistan to be 105, United Nations FPA office claims[43] the birth sex ratio for Pakistan to be 110, while the government of Pakistan claims its average birth sex ratio is 111.[44][45]
The two most studied nations with high sex ratio and sex-selective abortion are China and India. The CIA estimates[41] a birth sex ratio of 112 for both in recent years. However, The World Bank claims the birth sex ratio for China in 2009 was 120 boys for every 100 girls;[46] while United Nations FPA estimates China's 2011 birth sex ratio to be 118.[47]
China, the most populous country in the world, has a serious problem with an unbalanced sex ratio population. A 2010 BBC article stated that the sex birth ratio was 119 boys born per 100 girls, which rose to 130 boys per 100 girls in some rural areas.[62] The Chinese Academy of Social Sciences estimated that more than 24 million Chinese men of marrying age could find themselves without spouses by 2020.[62] In 1979, China enacted the one-child policy, which, within the country's deeply patriarchal culture, resulted in an unbalanced birth sex ratio. The one child policy was enforced throughout the years, including through forced abortions and forced sterilizations, but gradually loosened until it was formally abolished in 2015.[63]
The Indian census data suggests there is a positive correlation between abnormal sex ratio and better socio-economic status and literacy. Urban India has higher child sex ratio than rural India according to 1991, 2001 and 2011 Census data, implying higher prevalence of sex selective abortion in urban India. Similarly, child sex ratio greater than 115 boys per 100 girls is found in regions where the predominant majority is Hindu, Muslim, Sikh or Christian; furthermore "normal" child sex ratio of 104 to 106 boys per 100 girls are also found in regions where the predominant majority is Hindu, Muslim, Sikh or Christian. These data contradict any hypotheses that may suggest that sex selection is an archaic practice which takes place among uneducated, poor sections or particular religion of the Indian society.[78][82]
In 2017, two Pakistani organisations discovered large cases of infanticide in Pakistani cities. This was led by the Edhi Foundation and Chhipa Welfare Foundation. The infanticide was mainly almost all were female infants. The reason given by the local authorities were poverty and local customs, where boys are preferred to girls. However, the large discovery in Karachi shows that many of the female infants were killed because of the local Islamic clerics, who ordered out of wedlock babies should be disregarded. As, babies born out of wedlock in Islam is considered a sin.[96]
According to an article in The Economist the sex ratio in Armenia is seen to be a function of birth order. The article claimed that among first born children, there are 138 boys for every 100 girls.[48] Overall, the birth sex ratio in Armenia exceeded 115 in some years, far higher than India's which was cited at 108.[48][109][110] While these high birth sex ratios suggest sex-selective abortion, there is no direct evidence of observed large-scale sex-selective abortions in Caucasus.[108]
While the vast majority of parents in the United States do not practice sex-selective abortion, there is certainly a trend toward male preference. According to a 2011 Gallup poll, if they were only allowed to have one child, 40% of respondents said they would prefer a boy, while only 28% preferred a girl.[115] When told about prenatal-sex selection techniques such as sperm sorting and in-vitro-fertilization embryo selection, 40% of Americans surveyed thought that picking embryos by sex was an acceptable manifestation of reproductive rights.[116] These selection techniques are available at about half of American fertility clinics, as of 2006.[117] However, other studies show a larger preference for females. According to the Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, 80% of American couples who wanted to get gender selection wanted girls over boys.[118] 2ff7e9595c
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